I’ve been a student of rhythm ever since I can remember. (although I didn’t learn how to clap in time to music until I was five years old). My early musical education came from my family and was mostly due to absorption through osmosis.

Raised by a musician, I was exposed to many forms of western music — Folk, R&B, jazz, rock, symphonic music (mostly movie soundtracks), and whatever was happening in the rehearsal studio.

It wasn’t assumed that I would be a musician myself. I didn’t learn an instrument as a child. I just learned how to listen. I remember sitting on the couch as my dad played records by Stanley Clark, or Earth Wind and Fire, or Yes, or Stevie Wonder. He would get so excited about something in the music that he would get up and drop the needle back in order to replay a particularly tasty moment — exclaiming about this bass line, or that drum fill, or an especially expressive vocal moment. His enthusiasm was infectious and I learned to love these moments – both as bonding time and as an opportunity to listen to music.

I’ve always been a percussionist though. I remember my dad playing kitchen accoutrements like a drumset — a fork became a drum stick, a coffee cup – a ride cymbal; a place mat became the snare. I’ve been doing the same thing ever since I can remember. The washer and dryer produced interesting sounds. A stainless steel sink had interesting sustain that you could mute to control note length and different pitches on different sides. In the absence of some object, my legs or chest served just as well (I remember being so enthused as a seventeen-year-old, that I had bruises for two days).

In the post “Sound and Silence” I talk about my teenage entry into music as a life path. Shortly thereafter I got my first set of bongos, which I tied to a milk crate and played on my first gig. I then moved on to congas and had my first studio session. In the meantime (because of the instruments I had), I started paying particular attention to the music of Santana. At the age of 19 I made the conscious decision to commit my self to the study of music as a central aspect of my life. Ambitious, I remember trying to learn the conga part for “Race with Devil on Spanish Highway” on Al Di Meola’s “Elegant Gypsy” album. I learned a lot in the process.

In “Sound and Silence” I talk about my introduction to music as a spiritual path as part of a community centered around Bloomington, Indiana. What follows is several years of intense musical study, including West African, Indian classical, Afro Cuban, and Middle Eastern traditions. This is when the theory of rhythm, as well as the practice of music as a means of personal development came into focus. I connected with many other musicians at the time, formed a avant garde world fusion ensemble called “Rhythm Quest”. The ensemble performed and taught workshops in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, West Virginia, and New York. During that time, I was also collaborating with jazz musicians Kyle Quass, and Cory Smythe, world Vocal ensemble Vida, and developing music for modern dance performances.

When Rhythm Quest broke up in 1998, I began writing music for large scale percussion ensembles. What followed was a deeper inquiry into the aesthetics of sophisticated world percussion music and a collection of five compositions (to be released someday – It’s ambitious music)

Today, I live in Sarasota, Fl. I have built a studio and recorded and produced collaborations with various musicians. My primary collaborator is Stephanie Heidemann (of Vida, mentioned above). I continue to study music as a life path and work to refine myself as an instrument of creativity and inspiration. My intention with this blog is to share some of what I have learned in this process, in the hopes that it may provide food for thought, meditation, and musical and personal development.

The next step is to learn how to apply this theoretical knowledge to your instrument(s) of choice.  “Flow technique” is a strategy that is especially useful . There are hundreds or possibly thousands of types of drums which may require many different approaches to technique.  As such it is beyond the scope of this post to apply “flow technique” to every drum. It can and does apply to most single headed drums where both hands or sticks perform relatively symmetrically.

For the purposes of this exercise we will use the 4×4 time signature. The student can set as fast a tempo as can be comfortably sustained for several minutes without losing control. Most students should be able to start at a minimum of 80 bpm but a range between 80 and 120 is acceptable for beginners.

Using a metronome begin by alternating soft strokes starting with the dominant hand and alternating. The dominant hand (D) will play the numbered stroke and the “&”. The non-dominant (N) hand will play the “e” and “a”.

A few things to keep in mind with this exercise:

Relax……………. really. …………  relax.

Remember to try to keep your sense of the pulse somewhere in your body (tapping your foot is a common way to keep it)

Listen to each stroke. Pay attention to variations in the quality of the sound, volume, as well as to the space between the notes. It should be equal.

Pay attention to the feeling of your arms and hands; relax, keep the movement fluid.

Do this exercise until you are comfortable (it may require a few hundred or thousand strokes)

Play the pulse

The next part of the exercise is to play various parts of the measure while keeping your body in flow. This means continuing to softly play all 16 notes but beginning  to create a rhythmic pattern by playing specific moments in the measure with a little more volume. At first just focus on playing with an emphasis on the pulse (the numbers 1 2 3 and 4).

Notice that the louder note is happening on every other stroke of the dominant hand, while the non-dominant hand is still playing all strokes at the same quiet dynamic level. The emphasized note (accent) should be happening at the same time your foot taps and the pulse of the metronome plays. Once this is consistent pay attention again to the space between the remaining strokes. Also there should only be two dynamic levels — the soft touch of all strokes and the slightly louder volume of the pulse stroke.

You should continue to do this until your are able to consistently play in tempo with an even dynamic and note distribution for several minutes at a time. If you are working at a tempo close to 80 bpm, increase it by 10 or 20 and see if you are still able to play comfortably.

The “And”

There are two important differences to notice in this variation. The first is that there is an “O” in the 1 position. This is to distinguish the 1 as the beginning of the measure. You may choose to play this stroke differently, either with a different sound on the instrument (the bass, or dum/dun) or more volume (now providing 3 dynamic levels — the “1″, the emphasized note — in this exercise the “&”, and the remaining quiet flow notes).

The other thing to notice is the distribution of emphasized or accent strokes. There are four, but they are now asymmetrically positioned, with accents on the “1″ the “2&” the “3&” and the “4&”. All of the accents are still on the dominant hand.

Secondary upbeats

Here you will notice the that only difference is that there is an accent on the “1a”. This will require an accent stroke on the non-dominant hand (N).

Note: It is common for some beginners to experience a disruption of time (lags or time-drift) when non-dominant hand accents are introduced.

By now you will notice that there is some musicality to this exercise. You should feel some tension and resolution in the placement of the accents. Particularly a “pull” on the “a” of 1. You can substitute any standard voices of the instrument (Gun Go Do Pa Ta for jembe or Dum Tek Ka for doumbek) for any of the accents.  You can also play with different levels of dynamics for each of the accent strokes.

In this example, all of the pulse notes are played as are all of the secondary (“e” and “a”) notes. This creates a cluster of notes that surround the pulse. Again, the focus should be on maintaining equal spacing as well as equal dynamics in each cluster.  Because of the regularity of the secondary ups, it is not uncommon to feel a shift here where your time may drift so that you end up playing them on the down beat. It is important to keep the time in your body. If you feel the drift, stop and start again.

On your own

These few exercises are intended to give you a sense of how to apply instrument technique to the model in anatomy of rhythm.

Here are a few suggestions for further study:

Explore tempo — see how fast AND how slow you can play an exercise without sacrificing timing or dynamics. Push yourself; practice will increase this range.

Transcribe a pattern from a rhythm tradition and explore variations by moving individual accent points by one or two units.

Use a 3 based table to develop exercises in a 3 beat measure with a 4 beat pulse subdivision. Do the same thing for 5 beat measures and 7 beat measures.

Combine tables to create more complex rhythmic structures. Try to alternate two different 3-based measures to create a 6, add another to make 9. try a 4 and a 5 together to get a different 9.

Use a 3 beat pulse subdivision and explore how the alternating dominant and non-dominant hand position requires a more even distribution of strokes. (Hint: every other counted note – 1,2,3, etc will be played on an alternating hand – 1,3,5 on the dominant, 2,4, and 6 on the non-dominant.)

Try a 7 beat measure with a 2 beat pulse subdivision.

Try different voicing substitutions – instead of a bass on the “1″, try a tone or a slap. Listen to how different substitutions affect the tension and resolution of the phrase.

Take any exercise and displace it by a single unit – so if you have an accent on the “1″ it would be on the “1e”. If the next accent is on the “1a” it would be on the “2″ – again, pay attention to how the shift pulls on the pulse. (You are keeping the pulse, right?)

As you can see, it is possible to create thousands of exercises and rhythmic ideas using this basic model, and it is possible to develop your abilities on the instrument so that you can play virtually any note anywhere in any time signature. You will find that there are limitations around the edges of some rhythmic concepts – where double strokes may be necessary, or where pulse subdivision shifts. I will cover some ideas on approaches to these in a later post. Try to practice for at least an hour every day or two for best results.  This basic approach can be used for hundreds or thousands of hours and will help you establish consistency in tempo, timing, time signature familiarity, dynamics, articulation, and overall rhythmic flexibility. Happy practicing!

Music is intended to take the listener on a journey or tell a story. Every good story has at least one plot, and often better stories have subplots, twists and unexpected turns. Both in music and in storytelling, the way we keep an audience engaged in our tale is by creating tension and resolution. We do this by playing with the expectations of the listener. Even an uneducated listener has a cultural framework from which music is experienced. That framework is informed by all of the music the listener experiences. The characteristics shared by these various pieces of music become the (usually unconscious) framework upon which new music is experienced. These characteristics become the basis for expectations in new music. If the expectations are satisfied to too great a degree, the music may become predictable and cliche – whatever tension is present has less of an effect due to the listener constantly having their expectations met. If enough expectations are not satisfied, the music loses its cohesion from the perspective of the listener and the composer loses the audience. The key then, from one perspective, is to deliberately manage these expectations to maximize engagement while exploring novel musical territory.

It should be noted that neither cliches nor novelties are intrinsically good or bad – but only become so in how they serve the music.

Tension and resolution are managed in a variety of ways. For example, a composer might  choose is to overlay multiple layers or levels of content that expose or obscure the underlying structure by focusing repetitive consistent emphasis on a particular place in the time. One might  introduce a cross pulse, or work with prolonged periods of alternate subdivision (for example a 3 beat pulse subdivision over a structure of a 4 beat pulse subdivision). Alternately one might develop phrasing that pulls the time in a particular direction, or develop shapes that imply a different time signature. The approaches are myriad and range from the subtle to the bombastic.

The underlying rhythmic structure of a piece or section of music is necessary for the musicians executing the music. It serves as the common map from which all of the musicians use to play. Whether the piece is strictly composed and no variation is expected or desired by the composer or the music is largely improvised, this map is what enables the artists to navigate cohesively. The structure  further defines the territory ahead. Just as actors in a play or movie know the plot in order to properly interpret how they should play their part, the musicians need to know the structure so that they can properly interpret their role in the sound (even if that role is misdirection).

The structure of a piece of music from the perspective of rhythm is determined by tempo, pulse, meter (time/signature), and form. The content consists of the specific voices of the instrument and note lengths. While the two are related and typically inform each other, it is worthwhile to question assumptions that we might make about one based on the other.

Example 1

Here is a simple example that illustrates ways to interpret a phrase over multiple structures. First, just the phrase:

We see that this is a phrase with 12 pulse subdivisions. Because the phrase is divisible by either 4 or 3, we know that it could be either time signature (or something more arcane). Let’s look at the phrase with a 4 beat pulse subdivision (3×4) the shaker states the pulse

From the point of view of tension and resolution we see that this phrase places two notes on pulses (the 1 and the 3) and has two notes on primary ups (the 1& and the 3&), with three notes on secondary ups (the 2e, 2a, and 3a).

Next lets look at the phrase with a 3 beat pulse subdivision (4×3)  again, the shaker states the pulse

Here we see that only 1 pulse note is played (the 1); also, the “&” and “a”  have similar values in terms of tension in a 3 beat pulse subdivision. But we see that each of the “a”s are played here whereas only 2 of the “&”s are. So the most significant repetitive element would be the note preceding the pulse.

From this, we can identify that the phrase could be either time signature – if it were the 4 beat pulse subdivision then the phrase would serve as a more grounded element in a composition. If a 3 beat pulse subdivision is the underlying structure, the phrase would likely produce more tension by pulling the music back to precede the pulse.

Without hearing the pulse or knowing what other instruments might be doing in relation to the part, we can observe that the same phrase (content) would produce very different effects depending on the underlying structure. As a musician, you would probably choose to address the material in subtly different ways and you may find the material more difficult or easier to play depending the structure in which structure you are working.

Example 2

This example shows how the same sequence of notes in a phrase can produce a different effect depending on how the notes lay out across the measure.  The sequence of notes and rests are the same, but the following examples show them in two contexts. The phrase itself is simple and fairly symmetrical; it features two bass notes (dun/dum) two pulse subdivisions (8th notes in western notation) apart. First, how the phrase would read if the first of the bass notes is on the “1″ :

The audio clip has a simple accompanying Bass note on the one and a shaker on the pulse

Here we see that all 4 of the counted notes are played (bass on the “1″  and “3″  and Tones [go/do/tek] on the 2 and 4 producing a symmetry). We also see that 2 of the 4 “&”s are played (the “1&” and “2&”) Additionally there are two clusters of common voices (Tones), the first starting at 2 and the second starting at 4. This produces a very grounded phrase, with very little tension.

Here is the same sequence of notes arranged so that the first bass is a “pickup” into the phrase – starting two pulse subdivisions before the “1″ (or the “4&”):

Now we see that each of the “&”s are played, as are the “1″ and “2″,  with each of the tone clusters beginning on an “&”.  All of this emphasis on the “&” produces a bouncy feeling against the pulse – and creates more tension at the end of the phrase that the pickup begins to resolve at the “4&”. The listener may feel the pull so strongly that the jembe and shaker get displaced and sounds as if they are on the  “&”s.

This type of transposition of notes across the time can produce some very interesting effects even with simple phrases such as this one. I encourage students to take the same phrase and play with moving it across the measure a few more times. Simply modifying the underlying structure will give you a fuller sense of the possibilities of a phrase.

Example 3

Lets look at another example, which contains some very interesting characteristics:

Here we have a phrase that has 3 shapes. The first and third are 5 pulse subdivisions long. The second is 6 pulse subdivisions long giving us a total of 16 smallest common units of time. (Also of particular interest here is that the voice repetition and the extended rest of the first two shapes lead the listener to hear them as common, whereas the third shape uses a different voicing combination, creating a different shape. Note that subtle application of rests can produce interesting traits of symmetry /asymmetry.) The most likely underlying structure for a phrase like this is a 4 beat pulse subdivision (4×4).

With a 4 beat pulse subdivision we see that two notes (the 1 and the 4 ) are on pulses (downbeats). Two notes are on upbeats (“1&” and the “4&”) while 3 notes are on secondary ups (“2e” “2a” and “3a”). The “3a” would most likely be perceived as clustered with the 4 – leading into the downbeat, whereas the “2e” and “2a” are isolated from each other by one or two rests – giving them more emphasis. We also see another shape-like characteristic emerge – 4 sequential notes with equal value (the “4″, “4&”, “1″, and “1&” – called 8th notes in western music) creating a strong wrap across the measure (the “1″ being included in and surrounded by these notes). The remaining secondary upbeats echo the first two notes of the phrase and pull on the time, which produces the most tension. The sum result here is a line that I usually think of as kind of suspended. The “1″ doesn’t possess as much gravity due to its relationships with the surrounding notes, and the most significant tension happens in the earlier part of the measure, giving the “4″ a similar value of resolution to the “1″.

Now lets look at an alternate underlying structure:

Here, the underlying structure uses no pulse subdivisions (in western terms this would be a sequentially polymetric structure of 5/16, 6/16, or 3/8 and 5/16). With an underlying structure like this, one would expect the remaining ensemble to resolve to each of the “1″s more consistently. Because of the absence of pulse subdivisions and the rapid-fire resolution to the “1″, the music would be heard as more urgent (tense), less symmetrical, and generally harder to follow.

In these examples, we see that the same content can be interpreted in different ways depending on the underlying structure. The structure can modify the way that the music is experienced by the performing musicians, which in turn may affect the way in which it is experienced by the audience. By identifying and addressing content and structure as different elements of rhythmic material, we can  broaden and deepen our understanding of the interaction between pulse, pulse subdivision, and the notes that take place in this space. We can also identify that by questioning our assumptions about underlying structure, there are multiple and novel ways novel in which a rhythmic idea can be applied. Bringing this type of understanding to our development of music enables us to more deliberately choose how we tell a story, and enables us to find a unique voice with which to tell it.

As students of rhythm, we learn that most, if not all, of the forms of rhythmic material have some kind of structure. World percussion students often spend much of their time studying the patterns (commonly called “rhythms”) of different forms of world music – patterns (and families of patterns) with names like shiftaatellii, samba, jig, fanga, clave, and maqsuum. One could spend a lifetime learning all of the different rhythmic patterns of the world’s rhythmic cultures. In studying these patterns, one quickly learns that not only are there myriad patterns with different names, but there may also be many variations. In some cases, a pattern may be known by several names; in other cases, we learn that different patterns all have the same name (though typically with common characteristics).  We also learn that the authority for what defines these patterns can be difficult to pinpoint. In some cases the patterns have been welcomed into institutions of higher learning and so have become strictly defined. In other cases we may discover that a pattern is different from village to village ( from whatever culture of origin it hails).

All of this can become very confusing for a beginning student of rhythm. Beyond that, the way most students learn is by memorizing whatever patterns their teacher has learned (which may or may not be correct or comprehensive – if such standards are even applicable). It can become frustrating for students to spend time memorizing the motions and names of pattern after pattern and yet somehow still not feel like they are learning how to play. Variations require the memorization of new patterns, and when students get together to play from different schools of learning, sometimes they discover that while they may be using the same name, there is something unfamiliar to the setting that inhibits them further.

I propose that the reason for this is that the method of memorization as a means for learning how to play music, while valuable from the perspective of developing vocabulary, is insufficient for integral development. For some innately gifted students of rhythm, it may be enough, because in addition to the memorization of note and voice placement there is a gestalt-like absorption at some deeper level – something that enables the student to make intuitive leaps. For most students though, this does not come so easily.

Learning to play percussion (or any music) by memorization of a specific piece of music is like learning to read by memorizing what a word looks like rather than learning the alphabet, what sounds they produce, and hence how to sound out an unfamiliar word. Again, it may be possible to make intuitive leaps, but it is usually not optimal.

In my post “Anatomy of Rhythm” I lay out an alphabet of rhythm. While the number of variations in music may be significantly broader than that of the English language I propose that valuable insights into the characteristics of  nearly all metronomic music can be obtained by learning this method. Additionally, it opens the doors to creativity by enabling the student to imagine musical possibilities without first having to hear them. Finally, a student that learns the anatomy of rhythm – and a physical model for how to place any note anywhere in musical time on his/her instrument(s) of choice is able to more easily execute variations, improvise, and express in the moment.

Music is experienced in time like the flow of a river. At its best, the performance of music provides a pathway to awareness of the ever present Now – where our sense of self dissolves into this moment, and this moment stretches out forever. The sound happens before we think it and comes from a source that is beyond our intention, as we usually conceive of it. We discover that we are not making the sound at all; instead music is coming through us – and we are blessed to just be along for the ride. We become an instrument of Inspiration

To reach this place, we study, we learn, and we practice – developing ourselves so that we can be worthy instruments of whatever sound might move through us. An important aspect of this development is having the ability to integrate structure and content with a sense of musicality, where we are not playing a collection of notes, or patterns, but instead are intending to place sound on the canvas of silence stroke by stroke.

Certainly some music is heavily prescribed, but other music happens with minimal structural definitions. Students of rhythm should seek to feel comfortable anywhere in this range of settings. Learning how to flow in any setting is the goal. Learning the anatomy of rhythm is a way that any student can enter that flow.

First, it should be noted that without some form of practice, we usually do not develop very much at all. So it is especially important for the beginning student of music to make a commitment to a regular practice. The degree and pace of development will be determined in large part by how much we practice. Generally, I recommend no less than an hour every two days, and an hour a day will produce more results more quickly. I know (very accomplished) artists who practice a few hours a day, and have heard of artists practicing as much as eight hours daily.

The next consideration is what or how to practice. To maximize the benefits of practice, here are a few recommendations:

Divide your practice into two sessions. The first should be technical where you work on various aspects of exterior components of your playing: articulation, projection/dynamics, dexterity, ambidexterity exercises, timing, tempo, various voicing combinations, playing material that you find challenging.  The second session should be focused on making music – this is where you set aside whatever exterior aspects are most challenging and focus on making music with what you already know. Focus on listening and connecting with your sense of creative musicality. Over time you will notice that elements of your practice in your first session begin to arise in the second session. This will reduce your likelihood of getting discouraged when first practice session elements are particularly challenging.

Exterior:

• Set a specific goal.  Decide on what aspect of your playing you most need to develop and focus most of your practice time on that each time you practice. Doing so every day will enable you to more easily pick up close to where you left off from your previous practice session. Over time, you will find that it takes less time to refocus your attention on that element from one practice session to the next.
• Pay attention to the feedback loop between your intention, your body, and the sound you produce – this is one of the greatest tools at your disposal to identify how you can improve
• As you begin to build confidence in different aspects of your playing look for new applications of the element. You will find that by applying the element in different contexts, you will broaden your sense of the element’s application.
• Don’t try to master one element before beginning to pay attention to another. Most facets of exterior development are inter-related. For example you may find that your articulation is coming along nicely at 100bpm but suffers at 120bpm. Or you may find that you have built a greater range of tempos you can play with precise timing – but the faster you get, the more difficult it is to control your dynamics. You will discover that by having a specific goal and then trying to apply secondary elements your ability to see new aspects of your primary goal come into sharper focus. Additionally, mastery is an ongoing process; you may never be fully satisfied with any aspect of your playing – the more you learn the more you find that you don’t know – and the more nuanced your sensitivity becomes, enabling you to bring a more refined critique of your playing.
• If you find yourself getting frustrated, step back and narrow the scope of your goal. For example if you are working on articulation and are failing to get consistent articulation in your voicing (dum/tek/ka/gun/go/do/pa/ta,etc…) when you combine voices, simplify the combination. If that still leaves you exasperated, focus on a single voice. If you are working on a pattern that is particularly challenging and you feel like you just aren’t getting it, take the pattern apart and focus on specific moments, say two or three beats at a time, then focus on combining them. Frustration, while inevitable, should only serve to motivate you. If it is draining your energy to practice it serves nothing.
• Continue to honestly evaluate your development. As you develop, come back to earlier aspects of your practice from time to time. Evaluate whether you have more to work on, or (as is often the case) whether your development continues to progress without needing to specifically focus on some earlier aspects. Review for yourself what approaches seem to work best and build on those. Consider alternate strategies for approaches that are not working for you. As you evaluate, continue to focus on what you find most difficult for further practice.
• With particularly difficult material, allow yourself to learn in different ways.  First start with minimal context, perhaps just the pulse, and focus on the sequence of notes. After you have it, move on to integrating the rest of the context. If playing in an ensemble, listen to your part within the context of the rest of the parts; keep a strong sense of the structure and content.  Once you feel comfortable in the full context, focus on being musical with the part – pay attention to emphasis and expression; play with ornamentation and variation from this perspective

Interior:

• Practice in a place that is free from distractions and other sounds -
• Focus on the silence – both within and without. Clear your mind of any thoughts beyond those that arise from the music and allow them to pass. Listen for  the pulse in the silence before you make any sound.
• Pay attention to your breathing, your body, and the sound of each note as it comes into being.
• Allow your inspiration to take you wherever it will; don’t try to play anything, just play.
• When you feel it is time to stop, slowly begin a subtle descent, gradually reduce your volume or note density. Continue this progression until you return to the silent sound of just the pulse, and then let that fall away to just silence. Reside in that silence for as long as it is present.
• When the meditation is complete, don’t evaluate your playing, just reflect on your experience

Every musician practices – the amount and quality of practice WILL have an effect on your development. Through commitment and discipline, you will find great rewards in the acquisition of new skills, a refined sense of musicality, and greater flexibility as a musician.

The task of trying to describe Hamlet shows us a number of things about creative genius. The bard is a great example of someone who applied tools (“Words, words, words”) specifically enough to transport us to another place and time. He creates in us reasons to care about the characters and the outcome of the story. From the beginning, he produces tension that continues to ebb and flow in a way that keeps us engaged in the outcome. The miracle before our eyes is that he does all of this with nothing but words – ink on a collection of pages that even after a few hundred years still has the power to move us.

As a musician, you are Shakespeare. You are the creator of the story (or in some cases, the channel through which the Creator tells The Story [passivity is a common characteristic of mystical experiences in music]). Instead of words, you use notes. Perhaps the content is not so easily described (words often fall short of describing responses to music), but the creation of a momentary window into another world is still what you are doing – with nothing but notes!

That’s not quite right though, is it? Are we really doing that with just notes? Without question, music can and does have the effect we are describing, but doesn’t it take something more than just notes to do it? Yes and no.

While it’s true that we are using notes, we can’t reduce meaning and experience in music to just notes – just as we can’t reduce  the power of Bill’s stories to just words. The power of music comes in the interiority of notes, phrases, and structures.

(for a more complete discussion of the underpinnings of interiority and exteriority as it’s applied to many things please explore the work of Ken Wilbur)

First, a couple of brief definitions within the context of music:

Exterior: That which can be empirically measured, this includes pitch frequency, amplitude (pressure), tempo (measured in beats per minute – or any other way), notes, scale, chords, measures, beats, rests, the science of acoustics, overtone, etc…

Interior: what we experience when we listen to music (whether or not we are playing it) – this includes the sense of the meaning being communicated or the experience being transmitted, the sense of timelessness, joy, ecstasy, frustration, or peace, and the impetus to dance, laugh, or cry.

Clearly, music can be described in both of these domains and the reason that it’s important to acknowledge these facets is that we, as students of music, need to develop in both of them. Music is a language of the soul; it can communicate truth that is beyond the reach of symbols and words, but in order to speak this language, we must recognize that the sound (or more precisely the combination of sounds) has an effect on us individually and collectively.

I have known musicians who have great expertise and knowledge of the exterior – but seem to have virtually no awareness of the interior. I tend to think of these folks as professional musical technicians – capable of playing virtually anything, without having any sense of what it’s supposed to feel like. Consequently they are able to take the most beautiful music and express it with the precision and  expressive capabilities of a computer. On the other side, I have encountered folk musicians who love the experience of music, and have an intuitive sense of how to create, but have not developed the vocabulary to effectively communicate with others about what they are doing or want to do. These people are immersed in the mystery of music but are often unable to go very far because they lack a map by which to navigate. All too often what results is a creative rut.

Great artists from any era or culture have aspired to bring both interior and exterior mastery together in their work. When they succeed, we hear technically brilliant and theoretically original execution of sound in the service of taking us into a new world of experience – levels of nuance in expression and composition that bring new revelations to the fore every time we listen to a piece. We hear music that has a certain kind of authenticity and clarity in what it tells us about ourselves and our world.

Granted, this level of mastery requires great talent combined with great discipline and no small amount of self-inquiry. As such, music that fully succeeds at this level is exceedingly rare. Even for those artists that aspire to it, success can be a moving target – the more we learn, the more we discover that we don’t know.   But along the journey toward this goal, we as artists have the opportunity to live in constant wonder and inspiration (though despondency and frustration with our limitations can play a role, too).

Ultimately the study of music is a study of consciousness. It combines the interior and the exterior in both individual and collective domains. Revelation and wonder are constant companions. At each moment of discovery from the point of view of meaning, there is a need to develop new intentionality or openness – and at each discovery of a new technique, or refinement of theoretical understanding there is the process of learning how application and execution effects our experience.

When we are moved by great music, it is because the artist(s) have developed both the interior and exterior components of their knowledge. To become instruments of inspiration, we must continue to develop our capacities on both lines, greater sensitivity to how sound affects us, and greater knowledge of how to create that sound.

I believe this to be true of all great music, and all great musicians. I have never witnessed a great performance where the performer was stiff. Nor have I ever heard great music that I didn’t also feel in my body.

For students of music, development of body knowledge is as important a step in mastery of music and your instrument as any other.

Body knowledge in developing skills on an instrument is necessary because you are developing a physical relationship with the instrument. The goal is for the instrument to become an extension of your body. At this point, the performance becomes a dance. Specific kinesthetic awareness of posture and the position of your body in relationship to the instrument are critical.

Body knowledge in developing an understanding of music is necessary because all of the possibilities available in music have to first be present in your body (see Rhythm As Motion). Important to virtually all musicians is an awareness of time in the body (it is a common misconception that timekeeping in music is the responsibility of the drummer; all musicians must know what time it is). Fundamental to this is knowing where the pulse is – physically feeling it in your body. As percussionists, developing a precise awareness of each moment of time in your extremities should eventually move to your core, where each possible stroke is available to your body without thought. In this way, your body becomes immersed in the sound, and there are no impediments between inspiration and manifest sound.

In addition to feeling time in your body, percussionists must know where the sounds are in the instrument and how to articulate them in whatever dynamic range the instrument has. This usually require hundreds of hours of practice (see “Taking up the Practice… and practicing”) where the student develops a refined link between the motions and positions of the body and the ability to identify subtle ways in which the sound of the stroke may vary. The point of this practice is to develop muscle memory so that in addition to the body knowing where the time is, the body also knows where the sounds are without having to think about it. This leaves the mind free to listen to the source of inspiration and expression.

For many beginning percussion students, this process can be daunting.  Postural vocabulary  in western culture can often create body armor that limits the types of movement that are most conducive to physical musicality. It becomes necessary to first unlearn years or decades of limitations before one can allow the body to flow in music. Ego issues can further cause more inhibitions (“Do I look silly when I move like this?” – Answer: Perhaps – but if the music is happenin’, who cares?)  This is one of the many places where musical development can often intersect with personal development, becoming a journey of opening and evolution as your mind and body are trained to become instruments of inspiration.

See also Alexander technique and feldenkrais method

One of the most challenging aspects of developing as a musician is acquiring vocabulary. It may be relatively easy at first to find some internal musicality and express it through an instrument but over time, many students find their development will slow down. Epiphanies come at first hard and fast – one after another. Over time they come farther apart, and are more subtle. Often without a teacher, the student may find him/her self falling into a rut. The same material seems to emerge and what was inspiring in the beginning becomes cliche and uninspiring. While seeking a teacher for some quality one-on-one time is a great way to break out of these ruts, there is another extraordinary resource that can be used for further development – recorded music. There is a vast array of recorded music available in our record collections and on the Internet. Anything we find interesting or inspiring can become an educational source if we listen properly.

Of course listening and correct analysis of what we hear are critical components of getting the most out of sessions with the experts of their art. In some cases doing this may require supplementing our listening skills with some reading. (This is especially the case with recorded music that falls outside of our cultural familiarity.)  Additionally, there are so many things to listen for – stucture and content, expression, meaning, underlying concept, and cultural context can all provide fodder for our own development. A single piece of music can offer years of educational material as we develop our ears and our aesthetic.

This post will be about listening for structure and content – as it is both most useful and least subjective for the beginning student. If you haven’t already, it may be useful to read “Anatomy of Rhythm” to familiarize yourself with some of the concepts and vocabulary I will be applying here.

Listening

Listening to music as a musician is different from listening to music as a lay person. It requires your complete attention. Listening to music as a musician means listening as a participant in the music. Just as it’s necessary for you to fully engage your body when you play (see Body Knowledge and Movement), you have to listen with your body when you study. Try to get inside of the music – imagine you are on the stage, rather than in the audience. Listen for every detail in every moment of the music. Be attentive to how it makes you feel (without being overwhelmed by the feeling). Pay attention to the qualities of each individual instrument and each note. Become a part of the musical dialog. Allow yourself to feel the arc of the story as it progresses. As a participant, are there moments that surprise you? Are there moments that are especially satisfying? How many patterns can you identify? Do you hear your part in the music? Are there characters in the story that continue to grab your attention? Listen past those characters to the supporting cast; what is the supporting music doing?

Listening to music as a musician is a meditation and a skill you will continue to develop throughout your life. The more you hear and understand the more you will be amazed at the miracle of music, and the better you will be as an artist.

Finding the Pulse

The first step in understanding a piece of music from the point of view of rhythm is usually identifying the pulse. While it’s not always possible to objectively identify the pulse in any piece of music without getting the information from the composer, the student should usually be able to interpret pulse in at most a few different ways – and usually one or two (an exception to this can be found in cross-pulse music of the African Diaspora) The important thing to note here would be that the identified pulse works for the given section of music to which you are listening.  What I mean by “works”  is that the pulse can be used to identify the “One,” the meter, and has a feeling of emphasis across the music. Also, the pulse is typically NOT the pulse subdivision. So if you assume that the pulse is not the pulse subdivision, then you can expect that some consistent pulse subdivision quantity can be used to identify the pulse. Here are a couple of techniques you can use to identify the pulse:

First just listen – listen with your body; usually, you can hear it – especially in most western popular music and a lot of modern “world music”

If you hear a couple of things that might be it, try both of them – clap your hands to the pulse for 10 or 15 seconds at a consistent tempo (assuming the music you are studying has a consistent tempo). Does the pulse still feel like it’s happening where you are clapping? If yes, then you have probably found something that works as a pulse. Try the other pulse; does it also work? Does one of them feel more like a pulse in your body? If they both align with the content equally well, select the one that feels best (the one you would dance to).

If the pulse you are working with isn’t consistently aligning with the music, it may be that the pulse is of an odd meter.  Double your sense of the pulse (two pulses rather than one), and see if it aligns better.

Find the pulse subdivision (this would be the smallest common and consistent unit of time in the music) using “Flow Technique” (see: In the Flow).  Play along with the basic rhythm of the music for a while, figure out where some of the emphasis points repeat and count subdivisions until you encounter the moment that repeats. Here are a few general conventions when applying this approach:

A lot of common forms of music around the world use multiples of 4. 2. or 3 as a pulse subdivision. Try each of these in turn and see which one best fits the music. For a 2 beat pulse subdivision count 1&2&3&… starting at the emphasis point you identify and continuing until you hear the moment repeat. If the moment lands on a number, then you have found a functional pulse. If the moment does not land on a number, try a 4 beat pulse subdivision. Count 1e&a2e&a3e&a4e&a… starting at the moment of emphasis you have chosen and continue until it repeats. If the moment occurs at a number, you have most likely found the pulse (you may also be pretty close to identifying the meter) if not, try a 3 beat pulse subdivision.  Count 1&a2&a3&a4&a… Does that come around? If not, then it could also be worth trying 5, 6, and 7 beat pulse subdivisions – but these are exceedingly rare.

Another approach to finding the pulse using pulse subdivisions is to take 2 or more repeating accents in a pattern and count each pulse subdivision starting at the first accent and starting over at the next accent. At first you will not know how many subdivisions are between the first and second accent and so you will count just the length between the first and second (If you are counting and the second accent happens on the count of 8, then when it repeats, count the first subdivisions to 7 and start over at 1 for the second accent.) Once you have established the first accent and second accent, count the number of subdivisions between the second accent and the third (if there is a third) or when you return to the first accent.  This approach most commonly produces two odd numbers (most commonly 3, 3, and 2, but also commonly 7 and 9,  or 5, 5,  and 6).  Whatever the totals, try to add them.  If you get a number that is divisible by 4 (as are each of my previous parenthetical examples), then you probably have a pulse subdivided into 4 subdivision.  If the total is not divisible by 4 but is divisible by 2, then you are probably listening to something with a 2 beat pulse subdivision. If the total is not divisible by 4 or 2, but is divisible by 3, than you are likely dealing with a 3 beat pulse subdivided pulse.

If none of these approaches work, consider studying a different/simpler piece of music.  The more you do this (especially if you are also doing Flow practice) the easier it will become and the more complex material will start to make sense.

Finding the Meter

The next step in understanding the underlying rhythmic structure of a piece of music is to find the Meter, which is usually just identifying the “1″ and counting the number of pulses between “1″s.

Most music is only in one meter, though you may find some music that is  polymetric – either sequentially or concurrently. While this makes for potentially interesting music, it can also increase the difficulty in establishing a firm grasp of metric concepts. (Once you have confidence in identifying meters accurately, I highly recommend that you seek out some polymetric music to study.) The most common meters are based on 4 (4, 8, 16) or 3 (3,6,12), though the beginning student would do well to explore music in 5, 7, and 9 beat meters as well.

The key to identifying the “1″ is to look for the most significant moments in the music. These moments are usually accompanied by significant changes in dynamics, texture, harmony, or phrasing. You have already used accent points in the rhythm to use as references for identifying pulses. If one of these accent points also occurs at the same time as one of the significant changes listed above, you have probably already identified the 1. If not, you can still find the length of the meter simply by counting from the first accent point to the last accent point before the repetition. At that point, you at least know the length of the measure if not the starting point. Once you know the length, look for a significant  change in the music and use that moment as the “1″. From there count to the length of the measure (1,2,3,4,1,2,3… or 1,2,3,4,5,6,1,2,3,4,5,6,…) do you notice additional moments in the music that are signficant? Perhaps a drum fill that resolves to the 1 or a chord change, or a sudden stop or start of any or all instruments – if any of these happen at your “1″, you have probably found the 1 and the meter. If not, try another accent as the “1″.

If none of these approaches seem to be helping to identify the one or the meter, you may want to go back and make sure that you are properly identifying the pulse. You may again also consider seeking out some simpler music to help you build confidence in your skills.

Identify Instruments/Sounds

Another aspect of increasing your understanding of music is to try to identify individual instruments. By singling out a given instrument, you can follow that instrument through a piece of music from beginning to end. Doing so will enable you to get a sense of how the instrument lends to creating either the context or the focal point of the music. Studying the individual in the context of the whole will provide valuable information on the various roles you as a musician might be asked to play, and help identify effective approaches to playing these roles.

The easiest way to identify an instrument is to look for common textures. A human voice sounds very different from a cowbell, which sounds very different from a trumpet, though one note of a human voice or bell or trumpet sounds very similar to the next sound from the same instrument. Surely you know the sound of the instrument you are studying, so you should be able to easily identify that. Excluding those sounds, what sounds are left? Much of this is common sense. Additionally, a stereo image will usually give you a sense of space where the instrument resides. If you can’t identify a particular instrument, but are confident that you can differentiate it from the others, you can still use it as material for study – particularly if the intent is to transcribe material from the instrument from a rhythmic point of view.

Identifying the Form

Musical form is typically a repeated underlying structure similar to that of a measure but on a larger scale. In a lot of music, the sections of a form are usually defined by a quantifiable number of measures until a significant change in the musical tension and resolution or theme. Typically another change will take place in the same number of measures and common to most song-oriented music is the repetition of sections. You can map out a form by identifying the repetition of sections and determining the number of measures found in each section.

Popular song-oriented music of the west (rock, pop, funk, R&B, hiphop, folk, worldbeat and the many sub-”genres” that have emerged in the last decade) typically has a form similar to this:

introduction, verse chorus,verse, chorus, bridge, verse chorus

Jazz very often has a shorter form that is then repeated several times across the piece.  An instrumental jazz piece might look like this:

the melody is stated, soloist 1, soloist 2, etc, final statement of the melody

The soloists will usually solo for 1 or more full repetitions of the form (approximately the length of the melody)

Cantigas De Santa Maria – a collection of songs from Spain in the thirteenth century – usually have a verse chorus form but no bridge. The length of the song is determined by the number of verses, whereas sephardic music from Spain in the fifteenth century has only verses, but the verses are delineated in an A/B form, where A and B operate with different chords in the underlying structure.

These are just a few examples of form, as it has been applied to music. You will find that both Western, and Indian classical music have elaborate forms, whereas electronic dance music is often not as reliant upon form but instead uses sets of measures for determining the timing for shifts in texture.

Identifying the form of a piece of music will assist you in being able to deconstruct the overall arc of a piece of music. Doing so can provide great information on how to create engaging music yourself and knowing common approaches to form for a given genre of music will enable you to improvisationally interact with other musicians in a cohesive manner.

Transcribing Individual Parts

At this point, you have identified the pulse, the pulse subdivision, the meter, individual instruments, and the form. It may now be time to get into the details of content, which might include transcription. The beginning student will probably want to find a relatively short phrase (perhaps the length of one measure) that repeats on a familiar instrument for initial transcription exercises.

First, using the same approach as the graphs found in “In the flow” lay out the underlying structure of the phrase. Identify the individual voices of the instrument, and denote a character for each voice.

Begin by identifying the “1″.  Does the instrument play a note on the “1″; if so, which voice? Mark the character for that voice in the 1 box. Next, counting the subdivisions (assuming a 4×4 1e&a2e&a3e&a4e&a1e&a…), determine what sounds if any are taking place on the next numbered boxes (pulses). Identify the voice of the instrument that is being used. Continue until all numbered boxes are accounted for (It is likely that some of the pulses are not played and so the box would remain empty or you can use a dot(.) to signify a light touch.)  Once the pulses are identified, listen for any “&”s  and fill in the appropriate boxes with the appropriate character for the voice of the instrument. Finally, fill in the “e”s and “a”s.

You should have some familiarity with reading this type of table as a result of your study of flow technique. Read the phrase as you listen. Are all notes accounted for? If not, continue to count pulses and subdivisions until you have an accurate representation of the phrase.

By doing the same thing for multiple parts in the music you can start to see how parts from one instrument interact with those of another, and how the whole thing comes together to form a whole. Additionally, you are almost guaranteed to come across material that you find falls outside of your existing vocabulary and ability to play. You can use this as material for analysis and practice material to broaden or deepen your vocabulary.

To elaborate on this concept, I would like to address two ways in particular in which content can be organized – Shapes and Syncopation. These two approaches to thinking about rhythmic material can offer interesting perspectives on how rhythmic material functions. Shapes can be thought of as repetitions and variations of rhythmic structures inside of a phrase. Syncopation is simply the way in which emphasis changes the way we hear music as it relates to a pulse.

Shapes are a way of looking at rhythmic material in such a way that it is suspended over a metric structure. In order to apply the idea of shapes to a phrase, it is necessary that there be repetition of a sequence or voices or note lengths, and there be an asymmetry to the overall phrase. Let’s look at a couple of examples:

Here we see 3 repetitions of a sequence of 5 note subdivisions: (“Bass rest Tone rest rest” or 8th note dotted 8th note in western thinking).  You will notice that there is an extra pulse subdivision at the end (due to the phrase being placed over a structure of 4×4):

And here we see a collection of 4 (or 5 depending on how you think of it) repetitions of a 3 pulse subdivision  long shape. Notice how in each of these examples, the shape crosses the pulse. This is what creates the sense of suspension over the metric structure. By creating multiple repetitions of the same length across the pulse, the listener begins to expect repetitions of the shape (content) as much or more than a resolution to the “1″.  In this way, we now have multiple layers in our sense of time; the first being the pulse, and the second being the shape, which serves as an implied pulse and has the feeling of rotating around the pulse addressing different moments of the underlying structure at each rotation.

Let’s look at another example:

In this example, we can see one or two shapes – the first being 7 pulse subdivisions in length (Bass,rest,Tone,rest,Tone,rest,rest or 2 2 3) and the second shape containing the first but extending the shape by 2 pulse subdivisions (Bass,rest,Tone,rest,Tone,rest,Tone, rest, rest or 2 2 2 3) creating a shape that takes 9 pulse subdivisions. Let’s look at the same content over a different structure:

Here we see the same 7 + 9 configuration in the time but across twice as many pulses/pulse subdivisions  (4,4,6 and 4,4,4,6). An important difference here is how the time pulse is related to each of these. In the first example, there are  4 pulses and the phrase accents 2 downbeats, 1 upbeat, and 4 secondary upbeats. In the second example, the accents are on 3 downbeats, 4 upbeats and 0 secondary upbeats. The shapes are the same but the way they affect the gravity of the music is different.

Syncopation

The above example is also good for describing a concept of syncopation. Syncopation is simply the application of accents that depart from standard strong beat/weak beat conventions in the European classical model of rhythmic thinking. Because we already differentiate between structure and content (and strong/weak beat conception is more of an undifferentiated approach to considering rhythmic material) syncopation can have another application here. This would relate to what I consider “levels of syncopation”  In the second of the above examples we see that the content only addresses the downbeats and upbeats – whereas the first example addresses all three levels (downbeats upbeats and secondary upbeats) If the same phrase were placed over twice again as many pulses and pulse subdivisions (16 pulses),

we see that only downbeats are played (1,3,5,8,10,12, and 14 ). We can call this syncopating to the down. The second example would be considered syncopating to the up, and the first example would be syncopating to the secondary up. Thinking in this way gives us another set of tools when exploring dynamics. Syncopating to the down would be less dense than syncopating to the up which would be less dense than syncopating to the secondary up. Modulating levels of density can have a dramatic impact on the dynamic energy in music. Thinking about levels of syncopation also gives us a content oriented approach to using the perception of pulse subdivision to affect tension.

If we take the second example and add even a single note on a secondary up (say on the “3a”), we increase the level of syncopation. Doing so can have the effect of doubling the tempo (if the pulse isn’t explicit). By adding more notes to secondary ups we intensify this effect.

Syncopation levels and note clusters

It should be noted that note density can have a different effect – as differentiated from the perception of change provided by increasing syncopation levels. Using our last example:

Here we see the introduction of syncopating to the secondary up by adding a stroke to the “3a” and the “8e”. By adding these two notes, it is easier to hear the potential for other secondary ups. We explicitly define a 4 beat pulse subdivision where without them, we could be listening to a 2 beat pulse subdivision at half the tempo.

In this example, we have used clusters of notes that are related to the pulse: the 2, 2e, and 2& is the first cluster the next would be at the 3, 3e and 3& – and so on. Because these notes are clearly related to the pillars of the phrase (the 2,3 ,5&, and 6&), they have a different effect. Certainly, we are syncopating to the secondary, up but the effect of doubling the tempo is less intense. The clusters starting at the pillar and following with 2 additional pulse subdivisions, especially when repeated, creates a “thickening” of the pillar rather than standing on its own. This effect can be used in notes surrounding the pillar (one on each side) preceding the pillar, or as in our example proceeding from the pillar, each with slightly different qualities. What matters is that the thickening is done the same way across the phrase.

As a side note, one of the reasons one might select different orientations for the effect would be related to how one part relates to another part in a vertical structure.  Another motive for choosing an orientation of a cluster would have to do with the direction the music is “leaning” – does the music pull back, or fall forward, for example.

Above, we have briefly discussed shapes, syncopation, and clusters as different ways to think about material. Whether you are developing your own material, or simply trying to analyze material someone else has developed (or something traditional), having several models for understanding the music as it relates to itself, its underlying structure, and other material (either vertical or horizontal) in the piece pays dividends in your ability to learn, understand, and express yourself creatively. These models may not apply to all material, and because they are only models, they only apply where they apply (in terms of helping you to play or compose material). But where they do apply, I hope you will find them to be powerful tools in developing your vocabulary and your rhythmic understanding.

For great examples of the application of shape listen to South Indian classical music. This music makes extensive use of shapes to produce dramatic extended synchronized moments, typically most obvious at the end of pieces or solos

For great examples of syncopation in a groove-oriented structure, check out Latin jazz; and for great examples of syncopation as a tool for subtly producing tension, listen to Cuban bata music.

Music, and more specifically, rhythm, assumes periodicity – repetition – a specific event or context that is predictable in a specific time period. Of all of the possible sounds that could happen in a moment (the meow of a cat, jet airplane engines, cowbells, the flow of water over stones), a subset is selected – usually sounds from musical instruments, and often a subset of the available sounds of the instrument (7 notes of the available 12 in a typical scale). The sounds selected – and the time periods in which those sounds take place – serve as the pallet we use to paint on our canvas of silence.

Predictability is a crucial component of what makes music musical. The flow of music at a microcosmic and macrocosmic scale is based on tension and resolution. Tension and resolution refer to musical content’s feeling. Resolution can be thought of as the foundation or ground of the music. Tension is the flow of musical ideas that depart from the ground.

Pulse and Meter

The foundation of musical rhythm is pulse.

Pulse is modified by tempo which refers to the number of pulses per a specific time period – for example a minute.  Tempo is usually described in beats (pulses) per minute (BPM)

Listen to the audio clip of a pulse at 80 Beats per Minute

Listen to the clip of a pulse at 100 Beats per Minute. Notice that the pulses happen more closely together.

Once a pulse is established, the structure of rhythm is of comprised of multiples of pulses and divisions of pulses.

Multiples of pulses are used to form a measure.

(play a measure of 5)

Listen to the audio clip of a bass note every 5 pulses. This produces a measure of 5 beats.

Divisions of pulses are used to establish available common note density or pulse subdivision. Note density or pulse subdivision can be thought of as the smallest common or predominant unit of time. In other words, how many notes are commonly available in the music between pulses.

Listen to the clip of a 5 beat measure with a pulse subdivision of 2.

Listen to the clip of a 4 beat measure with a pulse subdivision of 4

The most common pulse subdivisions in most cultures are 2 3 and 4, though 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and more can be found (usually in western or Indian classical music). In western terms, pulse subdivisions of any number that is not divisible by 2 are considered tuplets.

Again, listen to the clip of a 4 beat measure with a pulse subdivision of 4.

(play a measure of 4 with a 3 note density)

Listen to the clip of a 4 beat measure with a pulse subdivision of 3. Notice that the tempo is still 100BPM but the feeling of the sound is slightly slower

Moments in a measure (Structure)

The moments in a measure, corresponding with the placement of notes and rests, hold different values in relation to tension and resolution. While each pulse subdivision is of equal length, its place in relation to the pulse and meter gives it a different tension value.

Because a 4 beat pulse subdivision is used most commonly, we will use it as a means to further describe significant moments in time.

The One: This is the beginning of the measure. Whether notes are played or rested, the One holds significance in most rhythmic systems. It usually signifies the moment when a change would occur; it is also the most common moment of resolution.

The pulse or downbeat – described above

The upbeat: this is the pulse subdivision that bisects the pulse – notice that it produces a higher level of tension. When only the upbeat is present alongside the downbeat, sonically it sounds identical to a 2 beat subdivision.

The secondary upbeat: These are the second and fourth pulse subdivisions – in terms of tension they typically hold similar value.

Note that for every downbeat there is one upbeat and two secondary upbeats.

Notes

Upon this structure (which has no sound by default, it’s just a map), we place notes and rests of different lengths.  Typically those notes and rests correspond to multiples of the pulse subdivision of the measure. We think of these notes and rests as having a value of a certain length – typically a multiple of the pulse subdivision.
So in this example:

Because the notes of percussion instruments typically have a short duration, and the control of that duration is usually limited (compared to say a trumpet, or a flute), we can think of the value of notes in percussion a couple of different ways. One way to think about it is that each note holds the value of one pulse subdivision. Any pulse subdivision where a note is not expressed would be considered a rest. Like so:

Bass, rest, rest, tone, rest, rest, tone, rest

Another way to think about it is that the note length is the sum of the note and the pulse subdivisions that follow, until the next note is indicated. The above example would be expressed in this way:

3,3,2 or two dotted eighth notes and an eighth note or; one dotted eighth note, one sixteenth note tied to an eighth note, and an eighth note.  (The tie represents one note that is the length of the two notes together – another way to express a dotted eighth note)

Of particular importance is how the notes in this pattern (or any pattern) relate to the pulse. Notice that the first note is on the “1″ – our most important moment in the time – and generally the point that possesses the most resolution. The next note is on the fourth pulse subdivision of the first pulse – the “1a”.  This is a secondary upbeat – and generally possesses the most tension. The last note before the phrase repeats is on the third pulse subdivision of the second (or last ) pulse – the “2&”.  This place in the time (the “&”) generally possesses moderate tension and so begins the return to the resolution. For a deeper exploration into how notes can be applied, please see ” Shapes of Time, Syncopation, and Clusters” and “Structure and Content”.

Summary

By having a clear understanding of the basic elements of the anatomy of rhythm, including tempo, pulse, measure/meter, pulse subdivision, and notes, you are well on your way to being able to explore music from the point of view of a rhythmatist. These concepts are fundamental to developing as a musician and composer/collaborator. You will find that the more you explore this territory (along with its interior components – see “Interior and exterior experience of music “), the more the world of music will become a source of infinite discovery, creativity, and expression. Welcome!